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.Finding a logical division of service types is difficult, as there is no generally accepted categorization of technical services and as nearly all of them have in some way or the other to do with computers.Necessarily there is quite a bit of overlap.In the following three smaller chapters various military technical services, which are performed by private companies will be explained in respect to their historical development, their nature, their importance or relevance and with the help of examples.As the field of military technical services is huge and also not very transparent, it is only possible to give a very general overview.It is therefore not within the scope of this book to give a complete catalogue of all technical services performed by private companies and all contracts awarded.These empirical chapters are rather an attempt to sketch the role and relevance of technical service contractors in information age warfare.This will highlight the intimate connection between technological change and the urge to transfer more responsibility to the private sector, which is a development that has now been going on for more than 50 years and runs parallel to the use and spread of computers.The overall empirical section is divided into three smaller chapters: one chapter on research and IT-related services, which is subdivided into military research, systems integration and military IT.These different services are sufficiently similar to go into one section and also a similar set of companies and organizations are involved in them.A second chapter will be on modelling, simulation, andwargaming, which is subdivided into weapons development and testing, militarytraining, and wargaming.This section specifically deals with the contribution of computer simulation and modelling for developing, management, training, andplanning purposes.A third chapter will deal with operational support services and is subdivided into maintenance, logistics management, and the operation of systems.These services are more closely connected to military hardware and are closer to the operations side.Military ResearchMilitary research is a very wide area if looked at from a historical perspective.It is about using science to discover technologies relevant for developing new weapons (not necessarily the weapons themselves).Usually research and development are used together in one phrase (R&D), or even combined with testing and evaluation (RDT&E).Although these activities are inextricably linked together, they are still quite different activities.It is therefore reasonable to distinguish military research,50War as Businesswhich is about creating the scientific base for a later military application (basic research), from the actual development of particular weapons systems (and all the testing and evaluation activities which relate to it), which will be dealt with in the following chapter (4).During the Cold War military research became a huge systematic and highlybureaucratized process, which drew upon a large infrastructure.It consists of national research labs, which set the general research priorities; the research labs of the individual services, which specified their particular needs; the research labs maintained by the defence industry, which developed new weapons according tonational and service requirements; government and private think tanks, whichformulated strategy and also guided military research; and finally universities, which also worked on military research projects in order to provide the scientific basis for future military applications.If one looks at the military research infrastructure as a pyramid, then at the highest level would be the national laboratories and defence project agencies, which fund and coordinate military research projects and set the priorities for procurement.They are usually agencies within the national ministries of defence.The US has not just one but several national laboratories managed by the DoD, the Department of Energy (nuclear weapons) and NASA, to name the most important.The central DoD research organization is DARPA1 (formerly ARPA), in the UK it is the DSTL,2 in France the DGA,3 in Germany it is the BWB,4 in Sweden the FOI5 and in Canada it is DRDC.6These national military research organizations conduct basic research, as well as applied research, which can later be developed into military technology for new weapons systems.There are also some international military research organizations, most importantly NATO’s Research and Technology Organization (RTO), which isbased in Brussels and dates back to the AGARD7 created in 1952.The RTO wasformed in 1996, combining AGARD and NATO’s Defence Research Group (DRG),to improve the international cooperation in military R&D and provided advice and assistance to its member states for aerospace research and development.8 On a lower level there are the laboratories of the different military services, which formulate the requirements for new weapons systems and which always have worked very closely together with the defence industries on the design of the next generation of weapons systems.For example, the US Army maintains several research labs, so does the USNavy, Marine Corps and US Air Force.To a certain extent this is mirrored by the armed forces of other NATO countries.At the lowest level of the Cold War military research pyramid there are the universities 1 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, see www.darpa.gov.2 Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, formerly DERA, see www.dstl.gov.uk.3 Délégation Générale pour l’Armament, see www.defense.gouv.fr/sites/dga.4 Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung (Government Agency for DefenceTechnology and Procurement), see www.bwb.org.5 Swedish Defense Research Agency, see www.foi.se.6 Defence Research and Development Canada, see www.drdc-rddc.dnd.ca/home_e.asp.7 Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development.8 Compare NATO RTO website www.rta.nato.int/Main.asp?topic=RTOHistory/AGARD.htm.Research and IT-Related Services51and other independent research institutes and organizations, which mainly did basic research without any concrete applications in mind.With respect to the US it is clear that many of the most prestigious universities have received a lot of funding from the Pentagon, among them Berkeley, MIT and CALTech.MIT even set up its owndefence research wing in 1951, the Lincoln Laboratory, which has worked on many important military research projects like the development of satellite communications for national defence in the 1960s.In addition MIT and other universities served as a talent pool for the then expanding defence and aerospace industries.Also in other countries universities attracted military funding, but certainly to a lesser degree (both absolute and in proportion) than was the case in the US.For example, in Germany the amount of military research carried out by universities was negligible and still is.Eventually, the end of the Cold War marked a significant change in the size and organization of military research, which had many reasons, not only the general cuts in military spending.In the US there is still a lot of military-related research going on, but the way it is organized has changed significantly.It is by no means as tightly government controlled as it used to be during the Cold War.Information on military research projects is now surprisingly accessible, at least as the official defence projects are concerned, while ‘black’ projects still leave room for a lot of speculation [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
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.Finding a logical division of service types is difficult, as there is no generally accepted categorization of technical services and as nearly all of them have in some way or the other to do with computers.Necessarily there is quite a bit of overlap.In the following three smaller chapters various military technical services, which are performed by private companies will be explained in respect to their historical development, their nature, their importance or relevance and with the help of examples.As the field of military technical services is huge and also not very transparent, it is only possible to give a very general overview.It is therefore not within the scope of this book to give a complete catalogue of all technical services performed by private companies and all contracts awarded.These empirical chapters are rather an attempt to sketch the role and relevance of technical service contractors in information age warfare.This will highlight the intimate connection between technological change and the urge to transfer more responsibility to the private sector, which is a development that has now been going on for more than 50 years and runs parallel to the use and spread of computers.The overall empirical section is divided into three smaller chapters: one chapter on research and IT-related services, which is subdivided into military research, systems integration and military IT.These different services are sufficiently similar to go into one section and also a similar set of companies and organizations are involved in them.A second chapter will be on modelling, simulation, andwargaming, which is subdivided into weapons development and testing, militarytraining, and wargaming.This section specifically deals with the contribution of computer simulation and modelling for developing, management, training, andplanning purposes.A third chapter will deal with operational support services and is subdivided into maintenance, logistics management, and the operation of systems.These services are more closely connected to military hardware and are closer to the operations side.Military ResearchMilitary research is a very wide area if looked at from a historical perspective.It is about using science to discover technologies relevant for developing new weapons (not necessarily the weapons themselves).Usually research and development are used together in one phrase (R&D), or even combined with testing and evaluation (RDT&E).Although these activities are inextricably linked together, they are still quite different activities.It is therefore reasonable to distinguish military research,50War as Businesswhich is about creating the scientific base for a later military application (basic research), from the actual development of particular weapons systems (and all the testing and evaluation activities which relate to it), which will be dealt with in the following chapter (4).During the Cold War military research became a huge systematic and highlybureaucratized process, which drew upon a large infrastructure.It consists of national research labs, which set the general research priorities; the research labs of the individual services, which specified their particular needs; the research labs maintained by the defence industry, which developed new weapons according tonational and service requirements; government and private think tanks, whichformulated strategy and also guided military research; and finally universities, which also worked on military research projects in order to provide the scientific basis for future military applications.If one looks at the military research infrastructure as a pyramid, then at the highest level would be the national laboratories and defence project agencies, which fund and coordinate military research projects and set the priorities for procurement.They are usually agencies within the national ministries of defence.The US has not just one but several national laboratories managed by the DoD, the Department of Energy (nuclear weapons) and NASA, to name the most important.The central DoD research organization is DARPA1 (formerly ARPA), in the UK it is the DSTL,2 in France the DGA,3 in Germany it is the BWB,4 in Sweden the FOI5 and in Canada it is DRDC.6These national military research organizations conduct basic research, as well as applied research, which can later be developed into military technology for new weapons systems.There are also some international military research organizations, most importantly NATO’s Research and Technology Organization (RTO), which isbased in Brussels and dates back to the AGARD7 created in 1952.The RTO wasformed in 1996, combining AGARD and NATO’s Defence Research Group (DRG),to improve the international cooperation in military R&D and provided advice and assistance to its member states for aerospace research and development.8 On a lower level there are the laboratories of the different military services, which formulate the requirements for new weapons systems and which always have worked very closely together with the defence industries on the design of the next generation of weapons systems.For example, the US Army maintains several research labs, so does the USNavy, Marine Corps and US Air Force.To a certain extent this is mirrored by the armed forces of other NATO countries.At the lowest level of the Cold War military research pyramid there are the universities 1 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, see www.darpa.gov.2 Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, formerly DERA, see www.dstl.gov.uk.3 Délégation Générale pour l’Armament, see www.defense.gouv.fr/sites/dga.4 Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung (Government Agency for DefenceTechnology and Procurement), see www.bwb.org.5 Swedish Defense Research Agency, see www.foi.se.6 Defence Research and Development Canada, see www.drdc-rddc.dnd.ca/home_e.asp.7 Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development.8 Compare NATO RTO website www.rta.nato.int/Main.asp?topic=RTOHistory/AGARD.htm.Research and IT-Related Services51and other independent research institutes and organizations, which mainly did basic research without any concrete applications in mind.With respect to the US it is clear that many of the most prestigious universities have received a lot of funding from the Pentagon, among them Berkeley, MIT and CALTech.MIT even set up its owndefence research wing in 1951, the Lincoln Laboratory, which has worked on many important military research projects like the development of satellite communications for national defence in the 1960s.In addition MIT and other universities served as a talent pool for the then expanding defence and aerospace industries.Also in other countries universities attracted military funding, but certainly to a lesser degree (both absolute and in proportion) than was the case in the US.For example, in Germany the amount of military research carried out by universities was negligible and still is.Eventually, the end of the Cold War marked a significant change in the size and organization of military research, which had many reasons, not only the general cuts in military spending.In the US there is still a lot of military-related research going on, but the way it is organized has changed significantly.It is by no means as tightly government controlled as it used to be during the Cold War.Information on military research projects is now surprisingly accessible, at least as the official defence projects are concerned, while ‘black’ projects still leave room for a lot of speculation [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]