[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
.It also had powerful ideologi-cal repercussions, sharpening internal nationalist tensions and creat-ing a sharp division in public opinion between supporters of the Allies(francophiles) and supporters of the Central Powers (germanophiles),provoking what Gerald Meaker has called a civil war of words.27 All ofthis transformed the political scene.As regards parliamentary politics, the division of the parties madethe formation and maintenance of a parliamentary majority difficultfor whoever was in power, which then led governments frequently toclose the Cortes to avoid problems (although the constitution requiredthat parliament meet every year, a minimum period of time wasnot fixed so governments could keep it closed for months on end).Between the beginning of 1914 and the end of 1915 Dato s ortho-dox Conservative government was dependent on the benevolence ofRomanones Liberals in parliament and therefore hardly any legislationwas passed.The most important reform was the decree setting up theCatalan Mancomunitat, an administrative institution which broughttogether the four Catalan provincial councils and therefore grantedthe Catalanists one of their main objectives: the territorial unity ofCatalonia.The Mancomunitat, governed from the start by the LligaRegionalista, devoted itself to the educational, cultural and politicaltask of Catalan nation-building.28 Otherwise, the Dato government, Table 2.1 Elections and make-up of the Congreso De Los Diputados (1914 23)Date 08/03/1914 09/04/1916 24/02/1918 01/06/1919 19/12/1920 29/04/1923(Govt) Conservatives Liberals Nat salvation Maurist Conserv Conservative LiberalConserv 216 111 147 190 221 115Liberals 119 224 170 130 112 182OtherMonarchists 001 000 003 009 006 005Traditionalists/Carlists 006 010 009 007 005 004Regionalists &Nationalists 013 015 033 019 019 021Reformists 012 013 009 007 009 018Republicans 019 020 015 016 012 013Socialists 001 001 006 006 003 007Independents 011 006 009 004 009 013Not known 006 008 004 005 007 005Total 404 408 405 393 403 383Sources: M.Cabrera (ed.), Con luz y taquígrafos.El Parlamento en la Restauración (1913 1923) (Madrid: Taurus, 1998), p.355; and author s ownwork.9780230_554245_03_cha02.indd429780230_554245_03_cha02.indd423/8/20103:59:16 P3/8/20103:59:16 P The Government, Parties and the King, 1913 23 43preoccupied above all with the maintenance of neutrality, limiteditself to surviving.From 1915 to 1916 a re-formed Liberal majority government, underthe leadership of Romanones, was able to operate more effectively,and, although its discipline left a lot to be desired, it undertook someimportant reforms.The economic consequences of the First World Warmeant that the Liberals sidelined the clericalism/anticlericalism ques-tion that had preoccupied them so much previously, and concentratedmore on public finances and social problems.After the economiccontraction caused by the initial uncertainty, the Spanish economyshowed itself capable of reacting and took advantage of the country sneutrality to supply raw materials and manufactured goods to thecountries at war.In this environment the rising star of Liberal politicsbecame Santiago Alba, who combined a strongly Spanish nationalistand anti-Catalanist discourse with an interventionist programme onthe lines of British New Liberalism.His tax plans stood out especially,centring on a tax on the extraordinary profits obtained by industry(mostly located in Catalonia and the Basque Country) during the war-time boom, and a complete reorganization of the Treasury to make thestate the true engine of the country s modernization.As Alba realized,only economic and tax reform of this magnitude would give the weakSpanish state the resources to provide the country with the necessaryinfrastructure in sectors such as public works, education and socialservices.29During this time minority groups appeared on the scene in theSpanish parliament, determined to break with the system.The LligaRegionalista in particular became an increasingly important pres-ence.It was determined to undermine the bipartisan turno in order toincrease its influence and achieve recognition of a distinctive Catalanreality.The party s objectives evolved from simple administrativedecentralization to political autonomy and it now adopted a clearlyCatalan nationalist language.With their leader Francesc Cambó to thefore, the Lliga capitalized on the mobilization by business against Alba splans and made maximum use of all the possibilities that the regu-lations of the old liberal parliament gave it to obstruct his legislativereforms in the Cortes.Miguel Matorell has studied extensively thesemechanisms, which allowed a determined movement like the Lliga toeffectively block parliamentary legislation.30 Although the regulationsobjective was to safeguard the prerogatives of the parliamentarians, inreality the practice of obstruction, exacerbated by the fragmentation ofthe political parties, the indiscipline of the parliamentarians and the 44 Javier Moreno Luzónperiodic closure of the lower and upper houses, led to parliament beinginoperative.One only has to remember that between 1914 and 1920 notone budget was approved.At the same time, the struggle between the francophiles and the ger-manophiles monopolized public debate and built up pressure to breakthe official stance of neutrality and to tilt foreign policy in favour ofone side or the other.While the francophiles in general, those on theLeft called for governments to favour the Western powers or even forentry into the war on the side of the Allies, the germanophiles whowere almost always on the Right of the political spectrum preferredmaintenance of strict neutrality, since an open alignment with Germanywas not viable because of Spain s geographical location and strategicinterests.As the war went on, tensions increased, spilled out onto thestreets and affected the government parties.Both sides called rallieswith massive audiences, like those given by Maura on the one hand,and those held by various left-wing orators on the other, in the Madridbullring in the spring of 1917.With regard to the Monarchist parties,these divisions affected above all the Liberal Party while it remained ingovernment.The pro-German press among which there were Liberalelements who belonged to critical currents within the party devoteditself to mercilessly attacking Romanones, the Monarchist leader withthe strongest pro-Allied outlook.These divisions put paid to his gov-ernment and to the fragile Liberal unity in the spring of 1917.Theparty once again, and definitively, split into two factions, althoughGarcía Prieto s democrats now became the majority and were in astronger position to remain in power thanks to the king s favour, whileRomanones was now in a minority, his pro-Allied sympathies ensuringhis marginalization.Both factions had the support of their respectivelocal clientelist base.31The king s stance was again crucial at this point, particularly as hisinitial sympathy for the Allies, which was in line with Spanish foreignpolicy since the end of the 19th century, was replaced by a defenceof the out-and-out neutrality that the pro-German factions had beenpreaching [ Pobierz caÅ‚ość w formacie PDF ]
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl trzylatki.xlx.pl
.It also had powerful ideologi-cal repercussions, sharpening internal nationalist tensions and creat-ing a sharp division in public opinion between supporters of the Allies(francophiles) and supporters of the Central Powers (germanophiles),provoking what Gerald Meaker has called a civil war of words.27 All ofthis transformed the political scene.As regards parliamentary politics, the division of the parties madethe formation and maintenance of a parliamentary majority difficultfor whoever was in power, which then led governments frequently toclose the Cortes to avoid problems (although the constitution requiredthat parliament meet every year, a minimum period of time wasnot fixed so governments could keep it closed for months on end).Between the beginning of 1914 and the end of 1915 Dato s ortho-dox Conservative government was dependent on the benevolence ofRomanones Liberals in parliament and therefore hardly any legislationwas passed.The most important reform was the decree setting up theCatalan Mancomunitat, an administrative institution which broughttogether the four Catalan provincial councils and therefore grantedthe Catalanists one of their main objectives: the territorial unity ofCatalonia.The Mancomunitat, governed from the start by the LligaRegionalista, devoted itself to the educational, cultural and politicaltask of Catalan nation-building.28 Otherwise, the Dato government, Table 2.1 Elections and make-up of the Congreso De Los Diputados (1914 23)Date 08/03/1914 09/04/1916 24/02/1918 01/06/1919 19/12/1920 29/04/1923(Govt) Conservatives Liberals Nat salvation Maurist Conserv Conservative LiberalConserv 216 111 147 190 221 115Liberals 119 224 170 130 112 182OtherMonarchists 001 000 003 009 006 005Traditionalists/Carlists 006 010 009 007 005 004Regionalists &Nationalists 013 015 033 019 019 021Reformists 012 013 009 007 009 018Republicans 019 020 015 016 012 013Socialists 001 001 006 006 003 007Independents 011 006 009 004 009 013Not known 006 008 004 005 007 005Total 404 408 405 393 403 383Sources: M.Cabrera (ed.), Con luz y taquígrafos.El Parlamento en la Restauración (1913 1923) (Madrid: Taurus, 1998), p.355; and author s ownwork.9780230_554245_03_cha02.indd429780230_554245_03_cha02.indd423/8/20103:59:16 P3/8/20103:59:16 P The Government, Parties and the King, 1913 23 43preoccupied above all with the maintenance of neutrality, limiteditself to surviving.From 1915 to 1916 a re-formed Liberal majority government, underthe leadership of Romanones, was able to operate more effectively,and, although its discipline left a lot to be desired, it undertook someimportant reforms.The economic consequences of the First World Warmeant that the Liberals sidelined the clericalism/anticlericalism ques-tion that had preoccupied them so much previously, and concentratedmore on public finances and social problems.After the economiccontraction caused by the initial uncertainty, the Spanish economyshowed itself capable of reacting and took advantage of the country sneutrality to supply raw materials and manufactured goods to thecountries at war.In this environment the rising star of Liberal politicsbecame Santiago Alba, who combined a strongly Spanish nationalistand anti-Catalanist discourse with an interventionist programme onthe lines of British New Liberalism.His tax plans stood out especially,centring on a tax on the extraordinary profits obtained by industry(mostly located in Catalonia and the Basque Country) during the war-time boom, and a complete reorganization of the Treasury to make thestate the true engine of the country s modernization.As Alba realized,only economic and tax reform of this magnitude would give the weakSpanish state the resources to provide the country with the necessaryinfrastructure in sectors such as public works, education and socialservices.29During this time minority groups appeared on the scene in theSpanish parliament, determined to break with the system.The LligaRegionalista in particular became an increasingly important pres-ence.It was determined to undermine the bipartisan turno in order toincrease its influence and achieve recognition of a distinctive Catalanreality.The party s objectives evolved from simple administrativedecentralization to political autonomy and it now adopted a clearlyCatalan nationalist language.With their leader Francesc Cambó to thefore, the Lliga capitalized on the mobilization by business against Alba splans and made maximum use of all the possibilities that the regu-lations of the old liberal parliament gave it to obstruct his legislativereforms in the Cortes.Miguel Matorell has studied extensively thesemechanisms, which allowed a determined movement like the Lliga toeffectively block parliamentary legislation.30 Although the regulationsobjective was to safeguard the prerogatives of the parliamentarians, inreality the practice of obstruction, exacerbated by the fragmentation ofthe political parties, the indiscipline of the parliamentarians and the 44 Javier Moreno Luzónperiodic closure of the lower and upper houses, led to parliament beinginoperative.One only has to remember that between 1914 and 1920 notone budget was approved.At the same time, the struggle between the francophiles and the ger-manophiles monopolized public debate and built up pressure to breakthe official stance of neutrality and to tilt foreign policy in favour ofone side or the other.While the francophiles in general, those on theLeft called for governments to favour the Western powers or even forentry into the war on the side of the Allies, the germanophiles whowere almost always on the Right of the political spectrum preferredmaintenance of strict neutrality, since an open alignment with Germanywas not viable because of Spain s geographical location and strategicinterests.As the war went on, tensions increased, spilled out onto thestreets and affected the government parties.Both sides called rallieswith massive audiences, like those given by Maura on the one hand,and those held by various left-wing orators on the other, in the Madridbullring in the spring of 1917.With regard to the Monarchist parties,these divisions affected above all the Liberal Party while it remained ingovernment.The pro-German press among which there were Liberalelements who belonged to critical currents within the party devoteditself to mercilessly attacking Romanones, the Monarchist leader withthe strongest pro-Allied outlook.These divisions put paid to his gov-ernment and to the fragile Liberal unity in the spring of 1917.Theparty once again, and definitively, split into two factions, althoughGarcía Prieto s democrats now became the majority and were in astronger position to remain in power thanks to the king s favour, whileRomanones was now in a minority, his pro-Allied sympathies ensuringhis marginalization.Both factions had the support of their respectivelocal clientelist base.31The king s stance was again crucial at this point, particularly as hisinitial sympathy for the Allies, which was in line with Spanish foreignpolicy since the end of the 19th century, was replaced by a defenceof the out-and-out neutrality that the pro-German factions had beenpreaching [ Pobierz caÅ‚ość w formacie PDF ]